Recreational Use Research Articles

Enantiomer specific analysis of amphetamine in urine, oral fluid and blood.

Illegal amphetamine is usually composed of a racemic mixture of the two enantiomers (S)- and (R)-amphetamine. When amphetamine is used in medical treatment, however, the more potent (S)-amphetamine enantiomer is used. Enantiomer specific analysis of (S)- and (R)-amphetamine is therefore used to separate legal medical use from illegal recreational use. The aim of the present study was to describe our experience with enantiomer specific analysis of amphetamine in urine and oral fluid, as well as blood, and examine whether the distribution of the two enantiomers seems to be the same in the different matrices. We investigated 1722 urine samples and 1977 oral fluid samples from prison inmates, and 652 blood samples from suspected drugged drivers, where prescription of amphetamine was reported. Analyses were performed using UHPLC-MS-MS. The enantiomer separation was achieved by using a chiral column and results from the method validation are reported. Samples containing less than 60% (S)-amphetamine were interpreted as representing illegal use of amphetamine. The distribution of the two enantiomers was compared between the different matrices. In urine and oral fluid, the mean amount of (S)-amphetamine was 45.2% and 43.7%, respectively, while in blood, the mean amount of (S)-amphetamine was 45.8%. There was no statistically significant difference in the amount of (S)-amphetamine between urine and oral fluid samples and between urine and blood samples, but the difference was significant in blood compared to oral fluid samples (p < 0.001). Comparison of urine and oral fluid between similar populations indicated that enantiomers of amphetamine can be interpreted in the same way, although marginally higher amounts of (R)-amphetamine may occur in oral fluid. Oral fluid, having several advantages, especially during collection, could be a preferred matrix in testing for illegal amphetamine intake in users of medical amphetamine.

Association of Cannabis Use with Complications Among Patients with Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: Insights from National Inpatient Sample.

Background/Objective: Cannabis, one of the most widely used recreational drug in the United States, has had a significant surge in usage following its legalization in 1996. In recent years, there has been research into the physiological effects of cannabis on the gastrointestinal (GI) system. Our study aims to systematically examine the association between cannabis use and complications of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Materials and Methods: We queried the 2016-2020 National Inpatient Sample database to identify patient encounters with GERD. Patients with eosinophilic esophagitis or missing demographics were excluded. We compared patient demographics, comorbidities, and complications among cannabis users and nonusers. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to investigate the relationship between cannabis use and complications of GERD. Results: A total of 27.2 million patient encounters were included in the analysis, out of which 507,190 were cannabis users. Majority of the cannabis users were aged between 45-64 years (46.6%), males (57.4%), White (63.84%), and belonged to the lowest income quartile (40.6%). Cannabis users demonstrated a higher prevalence of esophagitis compared to nonusers (6.11% vs. 3.23%, p<0.001). However, they exhibited a lower rates of esophageal stricture (0.6% vs. 0.8%, p<0.001) and esophageal cancer (0.2% vs. 0.24%, p<0.001). After adjusting for confounding factors, cannabis users were noted to have higher odds of esophagitis (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.34, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.30-1.39, p<0.001). A lower odds of esophageal stricture (aOR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.81-0.96, p=0.02) and esophageal cancer (aOR: 0.48,95% CI: 0.42-0.57, p<0.001) were noted. Conclusion: Our cross-sectional study using the nationally available database indicates an association between cannabis use and higher odds of esophagitis, along with lower odds of esophageal stricture and cancer. While these findings suggest a potential relationship between cannabis use and esophageal complications, it is limited in establishing causality. Therefore, further long-term studies are warranted to understand the mechanism behind this association and to determine if cannabis use has an impact on esophagus.

UV Light Is Not a Toy—Recreational Use and Eye Harm

UV Light Is Not a Toy—Recreational Use and Eye Harm

Recreational water use in tourist destinations of Altai Region and Novosibirsk Oblast: calculation and spatial analysis

Recreational water use in tourist destinations of Altai Region and Novosibirsk Oblast: calculation and spatial analysis

Recreational water use in tourist destinations of Altai Region and Novosibirsk Oblast: calculation and spatial analysis

Recreational water use in tourist destinations of Altai Region and Novosibirsk Oblast: calculation and spatial analysis

The Rave Panic

This thesis examines the "Rave Panic": a moral panic surrounding rave culture during the 1990s and early 2000s. It argues that, while the backlash against rave culture was not solely due to the use of so-called “club drugs,” War on Drugs rhetoric, fiercely promulgated in the decades prior, fostered a political environment in which the novelty of both the rave scene and Ecstasy were seen as a threat to American youth culture, fueling a massive social and political uproar. In addition, this thesis examines how electronic music ultimately survived the Rave Panic, becoming the global phenomenon that it is today. With the recent discussion of drug use shifting toward the importance of rehabilitation and harm reduction, as well as the increasing legalization of drugs such as marijuana and psylocibin across the country, the War on Drugs now seems to have lost its luster. This thesis argues that the Rave Panic represented one of the last gasps of the drug war, and, largely due to shifting social attitudes toward drug use, the electronic music community ultimately survived. The American rave scene contracted significantly following the passage of anti-rave federal legislation, however, the popularization of European electronic music, combined with the widespread shift in thinking about drug use, allowed its resurgence during the early 2010s. For the full text, please visit https://scholar.colorado.edu/concern/undergraduate_honors_theses/736666315.

The Synthetic Cannabinoids

Synthetic cannabinoids are defined as psychoactive substances that trigger the endocannabinoid system. They are largely used as narcotics, although some of their effects are used for therapeutic purposes. In the last decade, recreational use in Europe and the United States has increased more than other psychoactive substances. In Turkey it is called "Bonzai" or "Jamaica". In addition, a stronger effect than cannabis, affordability, easy accessibility and freedom from standard drug testing contribute to the increasing use of synthetic cannabinoids. In this article, we will examine the structure and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids and review the diagnosis and treatment of synthetic cannabinoids in the light of current literature.

Using personal tracking software data to aid the impact of illegal trails in national parks

ABSTRACT The use of personal tracking devices for recreational use and for safety when in the outdoors has grown exponentially in recent years. The large-scale data collected through these platforms has enabled our team to gain a greater understanding of the way in which people encroach onto National Parks causing environmental damage. The project used freely accessible data on the access of illegal trails primarily from motor bike and mountain bike use in the East Otway Range of Victoria. This region was an excellent case study as it is a mosaic of state and national parks and the signage and restrictive fences place by national parks have been aligned with the illegal trail formation. The data mapping has been coupled with measurement of the impact on the environment including the number and scale of the trails and the type of environment they are impacting including fauna and flora of national significance. The data has shown some useful information around the manner in which illegal trails are identified and concealed by users. Further, the research has uncovered ways in which trails have been concealed from authorities.

Machine Learning Discrimination and Ultrasensitive Detection of Fentanyl Using Gold Nanoparticle-Decorated Carbon Nanotube-Based Field-Effect Transistor Sensors.

The opioid overdose crisis is a global health challenge. Fentanyl, an exceedingly potent synthetic opioid, has emerged as a leading contributor to the surge in opioid-related overdose deaths. The surge in overdose fatalities, particularly due to illicitly manufactured fentanyl and its contamination of street drugs, emphasizes the urgency for drug-testing technologies that can quickly and accurately identify fentanyl from other drugs and quantify trace amounts of fentanyl. In this paper, gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-decorated single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)-based field-effect transistors (FETs) are utilized for machine learning-assisted identification of fentanyl from codeine, hydrocodone, and morphine. The unique sensing performance of fentanyl led to use machine learning approaches for accurate identification of fentanyl. Employing linear discriminant analysis (LDA) with a leave-one-out cross-validation approach, a validation accuracy of 91.2% is achieved. Meanwhile, density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal the factors that contributed to the enhanced sensitivity of the Au-SWCNT FET sensor toward fentanyl as well as the underlying sensing mechanism. Finally, fentanyl antibodies are introduced to the Au-SWCNT FET sensor as specific receptors, expanding the linear range of the sensor in the lower concentration range, and enabling ultrasensitive detection of fentanyl with a limit of detection at 10.8fgmL-1.

Factors associated with Cryptosporidium in men who have sex with men: A systematic review.

Cryptosporidium parasites are an important cause of diarrhoea globally and sexual transmission may occur in men who have sex with men (MSM). We aimed to systematically review the literature to explore any factors associated with transmission of Cryptosporidium in MSM to provide insight for future guidelines and public health strategies. We searched MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL and Web of Science for manuscripts published up to July 2023. A primary author conducted an initial screen of abstracts and full text eligibility, and risk of bias was assessed independently by two authors using the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal tools. We used the nine-point synthesis without meta-analysis method to synthesise narrative data. The review was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42023374279). Six manuscripts were included in the final review from the USA (n = 3), Europe (n = 1) and Australia (n = 2) and were case series (n = 2), cross sectional (n = 2) and case control studies (n = 2) published between 1984 and 2021 and overall there were 1582 cases of Cryptosporidium in MSM. We identified demographic factors (living with HIV, younger age [<30years old], geographical areas [Southern Europe v Northern Europe], previous Treponema pallidum, previous Entamoeba histolytica) and behavioural factors (recreational drug use, higher number of sexual partners and MSM attending sex on premises venues with spa/sauna) associated with Cryptosporidium in MSM. Despite a small number of manuscripts in this review, we identified demographic and behavioural factors associated with Cryptosporidium in MSM. These data will provide insight for public health interventions for future outbreaks of Cryptosporidium in MSM.

Hiding Behind Complexity: Supply Chain, Oversight, Race, and the Opioid Crisis

The opioid crisis has ravaged the United States, taking 69,000 lives in 2020, with prescription opioids accounting for 98% of opioid abuse. Although this epidemic is often considered a White public health crisis nationally, overdose deaths among people of color doubled from 2017 to 2019. As research has shown that the crisis was fueled by excessive supply from the pharmaceutical industry, several individual firms have received significant public criticism. However, we find evidence that the scope of the blame transcends individual actors to indict the very structure of complex supply chains, which may have exacerbated the crisis by dispensing significantly more opioids. In specific, we posit that supply chain complexity allowed mass quantities of opioids to escape detection by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Further, we find new evidence showing the greater impact of complexity on opioid dispensing in non-White communities, which underscores their exclusion from the public discourse and governmental response surrounding the crisis and suggests possible racial bias in the DEA’s regulatory policies. Our analysis was made possible by the 2019 release of the DEA’s Automation of Reports and Consolidated Orders System database, which logged every shipment in the US opioid supply chain from 2006 to 2014. Using a fixed effects model, we find that a one-unit increase across three dimensions of supply chain complexity is associated with a 16% increase in opioid dispensing. This effect is intensified in non-White communities, where a 10% increase in the non-White population is associated with a 3.39% (1.33%) increase in opioid dispensing by pharmacies that have supply chains with high (average) complexity. To verify that high-complexity pharmacies’ excess dispensing supplied non-medical/recreational demand, we exploit the reformulation of OxyContin (designed to prevent recreational use) as an exogenous shock to the market. In a novel approach, we leverage the fact that different pharmacies received their first shipment of reformulated OxyContin at different times and use a difference-in-differences model to estimate the heterogeneous effect of the shock on dispensing. As the reformulated OxyContin stifled demand, high-complexity pharmacies experienced a 15.31% greater reduction in dispensing compared to lower-complexity pharmacies, suggesting that their excess dispensing was indeed satisfying non-medical/recreational demand.

Glue-Sniffing Neuropathy: A Case Report

Glue, a volatile substance that is illegal as a recreational drug, has been popularly used for decades, and it can serve as a stepping stone for harder drugs. Chronic exposure can lead to substantial damage to several organs, including central and peripheral nervous systems. Glue-sniffing neuropathy has been reported since the 1960s, but with a lower frequency in recent years. We report a 45-year-old man who sniffed glue and presented with symmetrical distal motor weakness and paresthesia. Based on the patient’s inhalation history and initial electrodiagnostic study, we considered toxic neuropathy and demyelinating polyneuropathy in the differential diagnosis. He became chair-bound with repeating glue sniffing, and a following nerve conduction study showed the progression of motor-dominant polyneuropathies with markedly reduced amplitudes. An incomplete response to steroid therapy and recovery with inhalant cessation confirmed the diagnosis of glue-sniffing neuropathy. We conclude that glue, a neurotoxic volatile inhalant, produced glue-sniffing neuropathy with characteristic clinical and electrodiagnostic features.

Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) driven activation of cannabinoid receptor 1 results in biased intracellular signaling

The Cannabis sativa plant has been used for centuries as a recreational drug and more recently in the treatment of patients with neurological or psychiatric disorders. In many instances, treatment goals include relief from posttraumatic disorders, anxiety, or to support treatment of chronic pain. Ligands acting on cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) are also potential targets for the treatment of other health conditions. Using an evidence-based approach, pharmacological investigation of CB1R agonists is timely, with the aim to provide chronically ill patients relief using well-defined and characterized compounds from cannabis. Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC), currently available over the counter in many countries to adults and even children, is of great interests to policy makers, legal administrators, and healthcare regulators, as well as pharmacologists. Herein, we studied the pharmacodynamics of HHC epimers, which activate CB1R. We compared their key CB1R-mediated signaling pathway activities and compared them to the pathways activated by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). We provide evidence that activation of CB1R by HHC ligands is only broadly comparable to those mediated by Δ9-THC, and that both HHC epimers have unique properties. Together with the greater chemical stability of HHC compared to Δ9-THC, these molecules have a potential to become a part of modern medicine.

Cannabidiol - an effective analgesic for toothache?

This study is a randomised, placebo-controlled, triple-arm, phase IIA clinical trial with double masking which investigates the effectiveness and safety of Cannabidiol (CBD) as an analgesic for acute dental pain. The intervention drug, Epidiolex is an FDA-approved CBD oral solution (100 mg/ml) derived from the cannabis plant. The psychoactive ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is not included. The maximum recommended daily dose of Epidiolex is 20 mg/kg. 64 patients with moderate-severe odontogenic pain participated in the study and REDCap software was utilised to randomly assign participants into groups: CBD10 (10 mg/kg), CBD20 (20 mg/kg) and placebo. A single dose of the respective oral solution was administered, and participants monitored for 3 h. Patients remained blinded to group assignment, as did the outcome assessor. The provider was not blinded. The primary outcome measure was VAS (visual analogue scale) pain difference, compared to baseline and recorded at 7 subsequent marked times following administration (15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 180 min). Additional outcome measures were also recorded: changes in bite force, pain intensity differences, the onset of significant pain relief, the maximum pain relief, psychoactive effects, mood changes and adverse events. 40 female and 21 male patients with moderate-severe odontogenic pain (defined as ≥30 on a 100 mm VAS) with a diagnosis of irreversible pulpitis or pulp necrosis and symptomatic apical periodontitis were included. Participation required a negative test for recent drug and alcohol use, a negative pregnancy test and no use of analgesics within 6 h of the trial. Pregnancy, breastfeeding, hepatic impairment, recreational cannabis users and patients taking CBD metabolising drugs were excluded along with those with an ASA classification above III. Patient characteristics recorded included: age, gender, race, tooth type affected, weight and BMI. Mixed model analysis was used to compare numerical variables among the cohorts at the marked time intervals. VAS, bite force, Bowdle and Bond/Lader questionnaires were recorded. Inter-group analysis was completed using parametric and non-parametric post-hoc tests, including Holm-Bonferroni adjustment and the Shapiro-Wilk test, to evaluate data normality. NNTs were calculated for both CBD doses- the number of patients needing treatment before one patient experiences a minimum of 50% pain relief. X² tests were used to analyse categorical variables: pain intensity and adverse events. JMP software was used for the statistical analysis. 64 participants had originally enroled in the study, but three were excluded from data analysis due to 'unrealistic results', reporting complete pain relief within the first 15 min. 20 participants were given CBD10, 20 were given CBD20 and 21 placebo. 68% of the participants were Hispanic/Latino whilst 11% were white. The average age was 44 +/- 13.7. There was equal distribution of age, sex, race, tooth type, weight and body mass index (p > 0.05). No subject required rescue pain relief during the 3-h observation period. Compared to baseline VAS, significant pain relief was seen 30 min after drug administration for CBD10, versus after 15 min for CBD20 (p < 0.05). Pain reduction reached 50% at 60 min for CBD10 and at 120 min for CBD20. Both reported maximum pain reduction of 73% of baseline at 180 min. 33% pain reduction from baseline was seen in the placebo group, with a median VAS pain of 67% at 180 min. 45.4% of CBD10 and 46.6% of CBD20 required pain relief after 1-6 h, versus 37.5% of placebo (p > 0.05). Bite force increase was seen in both CBD10 and CBD20 groups at 90 and 180 min, versus no significant differences between time points in the placebo group. On assessing pain intensity, pain reduction was significantly associated with increasing time in the CBD groups (p < 0.001), versus no significant association with the placebo group (p = 0.0521). No statistically significant differences were seen between and within the groups for Bowdle or Bond/Lader questions (p > 0.05). In the 3 h observation period, CBD10 experienced 14 times more sedation symptoms versus placebo (p < 0.05), whilst CBD20 experienced this 8 times more (p < 0.05). Within the 3 h, CBD20 were 10-fold more likely to have diarrhoea and abdominal pain (p < 0.05), with some experiencing pain beyond the 3 h but resolving within the day. Based on this randomised clinical trial, pure CBD drug Epidiolex demonstrates effective analgesia against acute toothache.

A Two-Year Review of Cocaine Findings in Impaired Driving Investigations in Ontario, Canada.

Drug impaired driving is an increasing public safety concern across Canada, particularly due to the demonstrated increase in use of recreational drugs such as cocaine. Cocaine is a central nervous system stimulant drug; however, it can impair an individual's driving ability in both the stimulant and crash phases. Despite the scientific consensus regarding cocaine's potential for driving impairment, there is relatively little information available regarding blood concentrations and associated observations of impairment in suspected impaired drivers. Retrospective data analysis was performed to evaluate suspected impaired driving cases in which cocaine and/or benzoylecgonine were detected alone, or in combination with other drugs, in blood and urine samples submitted to the Toxicology Section of the Centre of Forensic Sciences with incident dates between 2021 and 2022. Cocaine and/or benzoylecgonine were detected in 46% (blood) and 66% (urine) of the total impaired driving samples submitted. In 41 cases where cocaine and/or benzoylecgonine were the only drug finding in blood, concentrations of cocaine and benzoylecgonine ranged from 0.0073 to 0.26 mg/L (mean 0.096 mg/L) and 0.13 to 5.3 mg/L (mean 2.1 mg/L) respectively. Driving observations reported by the arresting officer in cases where cocaine and/or benzoylecgonine were the only drug finding in blood and urine included the driver being involved in a collision, the vehicle leaving the roadway, erratic driving and the driver being asleep at the wheel; observations of drug impairment reported by the drug recognition expert (DRE) at the time of driver evaluation included abnormal speech patterns, poor balance/incoordination, abnormal body movements and the individual falling asleep. The results provide concentrations of cocaine and benzoylecgonine observed in suspected impaired drivers, insight into observations that may be associated with prior cocaine use and additional information to inform on the effects of cocaine on driving.

"Everything is kind of the same except my mind is with me": exploring cannabis substitution in a sample of adults in early recovery from an opioid or stimulant addiction.

Recovery from addiction is frequently equated with abstinence. However, some individuals who resolve an addiction continue to use substances, including via substitution (i.e., increased use of one substance after eliminating/ reducing another). Substitution may play a distinct role during early recovery (≤ 1 year), as this period is marked by dramatic change and adjustment. Cannabis is one of the most used substances and is legal for medical and recreational use in an increasing number of states. Consequently, cannabis an increasingly accessible substitute for substances, like fentanyl, heroin, cocaine and methamphetamine, with higher risk profiles (e.g., associated with risk for withdrawal, overdose, and incarceration). Fourteen participants reported that they had resolved a primary opioid or stimulant addiction and subsequently increased their cannabis use within the previous 12 months. Using grounded theory, the interviewer explored their experiences of cannabis use during early recovery. Data were analyzed in three stages: line by line coding for all text related to cannabis use and recovery, focused coding, and axial coding to generate a theory about recovery with cannabis substitution. The motivational model of substance use provided sensitizing concepts. The final sample included eight men and six women ranging in age from 20 to 50 years old. Three participants resolved an addiction to methamphetamine and the remaining 11, an addiction to opioids. Participants explained that cannabis was appealing because of its less harmful profile (e.g., no overdose risk, safe supply, few side effects). Participants' primary motives for cannabis use included mitigation of psychiatric symptoms, withdrawal/ cravings, and boredom. While cannabis was effective toward these ends, participants also reported some negative side effects (e.g., decreased productivity, social anxiety). All participants described typical benefits of recovery (e.g., improved self-concept, better relationships) while continuing to use cannabis. Their experiences with and beliefs about substitution suggest it can be an effective strategy for some individuals during early recovery. Cannabis use may benefit some adults who are reducing their opioid or stimulant use, especially during early recovery. The addiction field's focus on abstinence has limited our knowledge about non-abstinent recovery. Longitudinal studies are needed to understand the nature of substitution and its impact on recovery over time.

Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy After Recreational PDE5 Inhibitor Use in a Healthy Patient: More Evidence for Causation.

Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy After Recreational PDE5 Inhibitor Use in a Healthy Patient: More Evidence for Causation.

Robotic 3DCP fabrication of custom-fit slabs for irregular pontoons

This paper presents a case study on the use of 3D concrete printing (3DCP) to qualify rocky pontoons with spaces for recreational use—namely sitting areas, circulation trails and fishing spots—and biodiversity protection—providing habitat and refuge for native marine species—with a focus on the challenges and opportunities associated with 3DCP prefabrication for such a complex topographical context. We first discuss the benefits and disadvantages of 3DCP over traditional methods for retrofitting strategies with the support of state-of-the-art literature review. We then present a methodology and an experimental case study, organized in three stages: (1) a photogrammetric survey and digital reconstruction of the site´s rocky landscape, (2) the creation of a tool to generate and optimize custom-fit slabs based on their location on site, intended use and role in the protection of the natural ecosystem, and (3) the robotic fabrication of these slabs through 3DCP. Finally, we present our key findings, revealing that 3DCP offers a viable and more efficient alternative for appropriating and revitalizing sites with a disorderly and highly complex topography.

[Ketamin: a harmful recreational drug].

Adolescence is a developmental phase that exposes young people to exploratory behaviors, including substance abuse. In Switzerland, recreational ketamine use among young people is on the rise and is likely to lead to irreversible somatic complications. Primary care physicians play an essential role in identifying ketamine users, and should offer brief interventions, risk-reduction advice and a psychosocial assessment of the situation, involving close relatives. In the event of secondary damage, particularly urological damage, coordinated management by specialists is essential to achieve symptom regression. Primary and secondary prevention measures are also essential in the fight against addiction among young people.

Neutral sphingomyelinase controls acute and chronic alcohol effects on brain activity

Alcohol consumption is a widespread phenomenon throughout the world. However, how recreational alcohol use evolves into alcohol use disorder (AUD) remains poorly understood. The Smpd3 gene and its coded protein neutral sphingomyelinase (NSM) are associated with alcohol consumption in humans and alcohol-related behaviors in mice, suggesting a potential role in this transition.Using multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging, we characterized the role of NSM in acute and chronic effects of alcohol on brain anatomy and function in female mice.Chronic voluntary alcohol consumption (16 vol% for at least 6 days) affected brain anatomy in WT mice, reducing regional structure volume predominantly in cortical regions. Attenuated NSM activity prevented these anatomical changes. Functional MRI linked these anatomical adaptations to functional changes: Chronic alcohol consumption in mice significantly modulated resting state functional connectivity (RS FC) in response to an acute ethanol challenge (i.p. bolus of 2 g kg−1) in heterozygous NSM knockout (Fro), but not in WT mice. Acute ethanol administration in alcohol-naïve WT mice significantly decreased RS FC in cortical and brainstem regions, a key finding that was amplified in Fro mice. Regarding direct pharmacological effects, acute ethanol administration increased the regional cerebral blood volume (rCBV) in many brain areas. Here, chronic alcohol consumption otherwise attenuated the acute rCBV response in WT mice but enhanced it in Fro mice. Altogether, these findings suggest a differential role for NSM in acute and chronic functional brain responses to alcohol. Therefore, targeting NSM may be useful in the prevention or treatment of AUD.